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Blue-winged
Teal
Anas discors
[Published
in 1923: Smithsonian Institution United States National Museum
Bulletin 126 (Part 1): 111-121]
Spring.--Not until spring is well
advanced and really hot weather has come in its winter haunts does
this tender warm-weather bird decide to leave the sunny glades of
Florida and the bayous of Louisiana, where it has spent the winter
or early spring, dabbling in the shallow, muddy pools and marshes.
The early migrants are probably hardier individuals that have
wintered farther north, but the later migrants linger in the Gulf
States through April and even into May. Dr. F. Henry Yorke (1899)
designates three distinct spring flights, as follows:
The first issue of this, our tenderest, duck arrives in
latitude 37 o from March 25 to
April 1, staying about six or eight days. The second follows a few
days after the first has departed northward, up to and past the
boundary line. A short period elapses when they likewise travel
north to the southern part of Minnesota and its parallel. The
third soon follows, and stays an indefinite period, working up
through Illinois, Indiana, Wisconsin, and eastward about the last
week in April if the weather permits, the Ohio, Missouri, and
Mississippi, with their tributaries, furnishing the fly ways.
Mr. P. L. Hatch (1892) thus describes the arrival of this
species in Minnesota:
No other species of the ducks is so cautious upon its
arrival as the blue-winged teal, a trait by which the old hunter
determines its identity at once. In parties of 8 to 10 or a dozen
they will circle around, descending again and again only to rise
again and go farther up or lower down the stream to repeat the
same demonstrations of indecision, many times over, and just as
unexpectedly they suddenly drop out of sight between the treeless
banks. They are, as a general thing, several days later in their
spring arrivals, and as much earlier than the green wings in
autumn. This is not true in every migration, for I have once or
twice known them to come a little before the other, and several
times simultaneously; but in my observations, extending over many
years in succession, it has proved a noticeable characteristic in
its migrations. They are seldom seen on the large clear lakes; but
on small ponds, mud flats, and sluggish steams where various pond
weeds and aquatic roots afford in abundance its favorite vegetable
food.
Courtship.--The courtship of the
blue-winged teal is largely performed on the wing much after the
manner of the black duck, a nuptial chase as it were, of which Mr.
Ernest E. Thompson (1890) says:
I have frequently remarked that during the breeding season
this species may be seen coursing over and around the ponds in
threes, and these when shot usually prove a male and two females.
After dark they may be identified during these maneuvers by their
swift flight and the peculiar chirping, almost a twittering, that
they indulge in as they fly.
Nesting.--The breeding range of
the blue-winged teal has been materially reduced in area during
the past 50 years by the increasing settlement of the Middle West,
the encroachments of agriculture on its breeding grounds, and by
the constant persecution by gunners of an unsuspicious and
desirable game bird. Although it formerly bred abundantly
throughout all the Middle and Northern States east of the Rocky
Mountains, it is now mainly restricted to the prairie regions of
the northern United States and Canada, with only a few scattering
pairs left in the eastern and southern portions of its breeding
range. We found a few pairs breeding in the East Point marshes in
the Magdalen Islands, and only a few are left in eastern Canada
and south of the Great Lakes. In North Dakota it was still
abundant in 1901; this, with the pintail and shoveller, were the
three commonest ducks; almost every little pond hole, creek, or
grassy slough contained one or more pairs of blue-winged teal, and
we could see the pretty little ducks swimming in pairs, close at
hand among the vegetation or springing into the air as we drove
past.
Here their nests are generally well concealed in the long
prairie grass growing around the borders of the sloughs and small
pond holes, almost always on dry ground but not far from the
water; they are sometimes located in moist meadows bordering such
places, where the grass is long and thick enough to conceal them.
I found one nest in an open place where the dead grass had been
beaten down quite flat; it was beautifully concealed from view
under the grass. They also nest sparingly with the baldpates or
lesser scaup ducks on the islands. The nest of the blue-winged
teal is well built; a hollow is made in the ground and filled with
a thick soft lining of fine grass mixed with down, on which the
eggs are laid, and the grass is arched over it for concealment; as
incubation advances more down is added until a thick blanket is
provided, which the female uses to cover the eggs when she leaves
them. The nests are so well concealed that comparatively few are
found, considering the abundance of the species.
In Saskatchewan in 1905 and 1906 the blue-winged teal was one
of the most abundant of the ducks; we found 16 nests in all on
dates ranging from June 13 to July 9; the nests were on the
islands and in the meadows near the lakes, similar in location and
construction to those we found in North Dakota. On that wonderful
duck island in Crane Lake 10 out of the 61 ducks' nests found were
of this species; only the gadwall, of which we found 23 nests,
exceeded it in abundance.
Rev. Manley B. Townsend has sent me his notes on a nest which
he found in a slough near Crystal Lake, in Nebraska, on June 10,
1910. He writes:
One June day we made a systematic search of the swamp for
nests, and were rewarded in richest measure, finding numerous
nests. As we picked our cautious way through the swamp we came to
a small dry area, some 30 feet back from the open water. Out from
under our feet burst a large bird with a startled
"quack" and went hurtling off over the pond. It was a
female blue-winged teal. There, beneath a tuft of grasses, in a
hollow on the ground, was the nest, built of grasses and lined
with dark-brown mottled down pulled from the mother's own breast.
In the midst of the downy bedclothes rested 10 beautiful,
cream-colored eggs--an exquisite casket of jewels destined to
develop into living gems far lovelier than any rubies or diamonds
ever dug from the earth. The beauty of such a spectacle cannot be
adequately described and must be seen to be appreciated. On
leaving the nest, the bird is accustomed to nicely cover her
treasures with the warm comforters to prevent too rapid
evaporation of the heat. We had unexpectedly "jumped"
her and she had left in too great a hurry to perform that
customary function. Two weeks later we found the nest empty, but
the whole family were out there on the pond, bobbing about as
buoyant as corks, learning how to make a living and survive in a
wonderful but dangerous world.
Several observers have reported nests in close proximity to
railroad tracks, which seems to be a favorite location.
Mr. Robert B. Rockwell (1911) has made some extensive studies
of the nesting habits of ducks in the Barr Lake region of
Colorado; he writes:
By far the most abundant nesting duck throughout the Barr
district was the pretty little blue-winged teal. No matter what
type of ground our searches carried us over, we were sure to be
startled by the occasional flutter of wings, as a dainty little
gray-clad mother left her nest like a flash upon our too close
approach. We found nests of these birds in the dense cat-tail
growth along sloughs; on the soggy, spongy seepage ground under
the big dykes; at the edge of beaten paths near the lake shore; by
roadsides back from the water; among the dry weeds and sand of the
prairie, far from the water's edge; amid the dense rank grass on a
tiny island; in alfalfa fields, on grassy flats, and in cavities
in and upon muskrat houses.
The nests exhibited a wide diversity in construction. The
predominating type was a neat basketlike structure composed of
fine soft dead grass, sometimes set well into a dense clump of
rank grass on the surface of the ground, and sometimes sunken into
a cavity until the top of the nest was flush with the surface of
the ground. These nests were usually liberally lined with down;
much thicker on the sides and rim of the nest than on the bottom.
In fact several were examined which had no down whatever
underneath the eggs. The quantity of down varied greatly in
different nests, but apparently increased in quantity as
incubation advanced.
A less common type of nest was made entirely of bits of dead
cat-tail blades deep set into a cavity in the ground. This type of
nest was usually found in marshy places, where this material was
more available, and in these there was much less of the downy
lining. The concealment of these nests was likewise less
effective, and taken as a whole this type of nest was altogether
inferior. We found a few built in wet places where the foundation
of the nest was actually wet, but we did not find a single nest
where the eggs were the least bit damp; and the large majority
were in perfectly dry locations in close proximity to water.
The concealment of the better built nests, especially those
in the center of a tussock of rank grass, was well-nigh perfect;
in fact in most cases we were unable to see either the brooding
bird or the eggs from a distance of 5 to 6 feet even when we knew
the exact location of the nest. Upon leaving the nest during
incubation the parent covered the eggs with the downy rim of the
nest and the concealment thus afforded was remarkable.
Several radical departures from the characteristic habits
were encountered. One bird had built her nest on a little flat
amid some short blue grass which afforded her no concealment
whatever. As she brooded her eggs she was plainly visible at a
distance of 20 yards or more. She allowed me to approach to within
4 or 5 feet and set up my camera for an exposure; and then instead
of springing lightly into the air as usual, she ambled awkwardly
off the nest, waddled slowly between the legs of my tripod,
uttering lazy little quacks of protest, and finally after walking
a distance of 30 yards or more took flight.
While plowing our way through a dense cat-tail swamp in
water above our knees we frightened a teal from a nest in a
muskrat house. A careful search finally revealed the eggs fully a
foot back from the entrance of a deep cavity in the side of the
house. To our surprise the nest contained four eggs of the teal
and five eggs of some big duck, all of which were incubated.
Another queer nest was found, which was a shallow depression
on the side of a dilapidated muskrat house, which had been
originally built between a fence post and its diagonal brace. The
lower barbed wire of the fence prevented the top of the house from
collapsing, while the side weathered away, leaving a cavity well
protected by the overhanging top. In this cavity without a sign of
lining or a bit of concealment lay the 10 conspicuous white eggs.
They could be readily seen from a distance of 20 yards.
The down in the blue-winged teal's nest is larger and lighter
colored than in that of the green-winged teal; it varies in color
from "hair brown" to "drab," and it has large
whitish centers.
Eggs.--The blue-winged teal lays from
6 to 15 eggs, but the numbers most commonly found in full sets are
10, 11, and 12. All ducks are more or less careless about laying
in each other's nests. This seems to occur less frequently with
the teals than with the larger species, but the nest mentioned
above by Mr. Rockwell (1911), containing "four eggs of the
teal and five eggs of some big duck," shows that the little
teal is sometimes imposed upon.
The eggs of the blue-winged teal vary in shape from ovate to
elliptical ovate; the shell is very smooth, but only slightly
glossy. In color they are dull white, light-cream color, creamy
white, or pale olive white. They are not distinguishable from
those of other teals; but if the female is flushed from the nest,
she can be distinguished from the green-winged teal by the blue
wing-coverts, but not so easily from the cinnamon teal.
The measurements of 93 eggs in various collections average 46.6
by 33.4 millimeters; the eggs showing the four extremes measure 49.5
by 35, 47.2 by 36.2, 43.5 by 32, and 45.6 by 31.3
millimeters.
Young.--As the male deserts the
female soon after the eggs are laid, incubation is performed
solely by her. Incubation does not
begin until after the last egg is laid, one egg having been laid
each day until the set is complete. The period of incubation is
from 21 to 23 days. The young hatch almost simultaneously, or at
least within a few hours; they remain in the nest until they have
dried off and are strong enough to walk, when they are led to the
nearest water and taught by their devoted mother to feed. Their
food at this age consists mainly of soft insects, worms, and other
small, tender, animal food, but they soon learn to forage for
themselves and pick up a variety of vegetable foods as well. The
young are guarded with tender care by one of the most devoted of
mothers; when surprised with her brood of young she resorts to all
the arts and strategies known to anxious bird mothers to draw the
intruder away from her brood or to distract his attention, utterly
regardless of her own safety, while the young have time to hide or
escape to a place of safety. The young are experts at hiding, even
in open situations, where they squat flat on the ground and
vanish; but they usually run or swim in among tall grass or reeds,
where it is almost useless to look for them. All through the
remainder of the summer, until they are able to fly, she remains
with them teaching them where to find the choicest foods and how
to escape from their numerous enemies; they learn to know her
warning calls, when to run and when to hide, and by the end of the
summer they are ready to gather into flocks for the fall
migration.
Plumages.--In the downy young the
colors of the upper parts vary from "mummy brown" to
"Dresden brown," darker on the crown and rump, lighter
elsewhere, the down being much darker basally; the under parts are
"maize yellow," shaded locally with "buff
yellow," due to the darker tips of the down; the sides of the
head are "yellow ochre" or pale "buckthorn
brown" in young birds, but these colors soon fade and all the
colors grow paler as the young bird increases in size. The color
pattern of the head consists of a dark-brown central crown
bordered on each side by a broad superciliary stripe of yellow
ochre, below which is a narrow postocular stripe, a loral patch,
and an auricular spot of dusky. On the back the brown is broken by
four large spots of yellowish, one on each side of the rump and
one on each scapular region. Young blue-winged teal closely
resemble young shovellers, but the latter are paler colored, with
all the brown areas more extensive, with less of the rich buff and
yellow tints and with longer and more broadly tipped bills.
The young develop more rapidly than those of the larger ducks,
as they are late breeders and early fall migrants. The first
feathers to appear on the downy young are the mottled feathers of
the sides, below and above the wings; these come when the young
bird is hardly one-third grown, sometimes by the end of June. The
growth of the feathers spreads over the breast first, then over
the back and head, the down disappearing late on the rump and last
on the hind neck; by the end of July the young teal is nearly
fully grown and the whole of the spotted juvenal plumage has been
acquired except the wing quills which are still in their sheaths.
During August the wings and tail are acquired and before the end
of that month the young birds can fly. Before the wings are grown
the sexes are practically indistinguishable and both resemble the
adult female except that they are lighter colored below and often
nearly immaculate white on the belly.
During the fall and winter the young teal makes slow progress
toward maturity; the blue lesser wing coverts and the green
speculum are acquired as soon as the wings are grown, but they are
duller than in adults; other changes come slowly until spring,
when the first nuptial plumage is assumed, hardly distinguishable
from the adult nuptial plumage, but the colors are all duller and
the long blue-edged scapulars are not yet developed.
The first eclipse plumage is assumed in July and August; and at
this first complete postnuptial molt the young bird becomes
indistinguishable from the adult, when about 14 months old.
The eclipse plumage in the adult involves the change of all the
contour feathers and the scapulars; it does not begin until July,
is complete in August, when the flight feathers are molted, and
lasts through September. In this plumage the male closely
resembles the female, but can always be recognized by the wings,
in which no marked seasonable change takes place. Adults are slow
in shedding the eclipse plumage, individuals varying greatly in
this respect. The full body plumage is seldom acquired before the
middle of winter and sometimes not until March, so that the
gradual changes taking place might be regarded as a prolonged
prenuptial molt.
Hybrids among the teals are not common, but Mr. William G.
Smith (1887) records a specimen which he took in Colorado,
"the whole body color of the cinnamon teal, with the head the
color, and snow-white cheek marks distinctly, of the bluewing."
Mr. Frederic H. Kennard (1919) has described, under the
subspecific name albinucha, a supposed southern race of the
blue-winged teal, the sole distinguishing character being a
continuation of the white crescents over the eyes in thin
superciliary lines down to the nape, where they join to form a
white nuchal patch. It does not seem to have been proven that all
southern breeding teal are so marked, and I have seen several
northern breeding teal partially so marked. Mr. Stanley C. Arthur
(1920) records a case where a bird in captivity lost this marking
after molting into a new spring plumage. This marking may prove to
be merely a high stage of plumage, assumed by the most vigorous
birds. Mr. Arthur's bird died soon after assuming the normal
spring plumage, which may mean that waning vitality was the cause
of its losing its white adornment.
Food.--The blue-winged teal is
decidedly a surface feeder; it feeds in shallow, muddy pond holes
overgrown with aquatic vegetation, about the reedy shores of lakes
and sloughs, and even in wet meadows, particularly along the banks
of grassy ditches and creeks, where it is usually concealed from
view; its food is usually obtained on the surface or within reach
of its submerged head and neck, but occasionally its tail is
tipped up and its body half immersed. Its food consists largely of
tender aquatic plants.
In the fall it visits the grain fields occasionally and eats
some wheat and barley. It eats wild rice wherever it can find it
and, on its winter feeding grounds, it lives and feasts in the
extensive rice fields. Its animal food includes tadpoles, worms,
snails, and other small mollusks, water insects, and larvae. Dr.
J. C. Phillips (1911) found that the stomachs of birds shot in
Massachusetts contained "many young snails, various insects,
and seeds of bur reed, pondweeds, smartweed, and various sedges
and grasses. Animal matter, 88 per cent; vegetable, 12 per cent;
mineral, 8 per cent."
Mr. Douglas C. Mabbott (1920) sums up the food of the
blue-winged teal as follows:
About seven-tenths (70.53 per cent) of the blue-winged
teal's food consists of vegetable matter. Of this about
three-fourths is included in four families of plants. Sedges (Cyperaceae),
with 18.79 per cent; pondweeds (Naiadaceae), 12.6; grasses (Gramineae),
12.26; and the smartweeds (Polygonaceae), 8.22. The remainder of
the plant food is made up of algae, 2.95 per cent; water lilies (Nymphaeaceae),
1.37; rice and corn, 0.98; water milfoils (Haloragidacae), 0.71,
bur reeds (Sparganiaceae), 0.38; madder family (Rubiaceae), 0.35;
and miscellaneous 11.92 per cent.
Animal matter constitutes 29.47 per cent of the total food
of the blue-winged teal, which is more than three times the
percentage of animal food eaten by the green-wing. Over half of
this (16.82 per cent) is mollusks, the remainder being made up of
insects, 10.41 per cent, crustaceans, 1.93, and miscellaneous,
0.31 per cent.
Behavior.--From the water the
blue-winged teal springs into the air with surprising agility, and
when under way is one of the swiftest of the ducks in flight; it
has been credited with attaining a speed of 90, 100, or even 130
miles an hour, but probably these speeds are all overestimated, as
there is very little accurate data on which to base an estimate.
Doctor Yorke (1899) says: "They travel at the rate of about
130 miles an hour, exceeded only by the green-winged teal."
This seems incredible.
Audubon (1840) says:
The flight of the blue-winged teal is extremely rapid and
well sustained. Indeed, I have thought that, when traveling, it
passes through the air with a speed equal to that of the passenger
pigeon. When flying in flocks in clear sunny weather, the blue of
their wings glistens like polished steel, so as to give them the
most lively appearance, and while they are wheeling over the
places in which they intend to alight, their wings being
alternately thrown in the shade and exposed to the bright light,
the glowing and varied luster thus produced, at whatever distance
they may be, draws your eyes involuntarily toward them. When
advancing against a stiff breeze, they alternately show their
upper and lower surfaces, and you are struck by the vivid steel
blue of their mantle, which resembles the dancing light of a piece
of glass suddenly reflected on a distant object. I have never
observed them traveling in company with other ducks, but I have
seen them at times passing over the sea at a considerable distance
from land. Before alighting, and almost under any circumstances,
and in any locality, these teals pass and repass several times
over the place, as if to assure themselves of the absence of
danger, or, should there be cause of apprehension, to watch until
it is over. They swim buoyantly, and generally in a close body, at
times nearly touching each other.
Nuttall (1834) says that "when they alight," they
"drop down suddenly among the reeds in the manner of the
snipe or woodcock."
About the vocal powers of this teal
there is very little to be said. Dawson (1903) has covered the
ground very well in the following words:
In addition to the whistling of the wings, the teals have a
soft lisping note, only remotely related to the typical anatidine
"quack," and is uttered either in apprehension or
encouragement.
While feeding and at other times these teal are usually silent;
the lisping or peeping of the male are more often heard when the
birds are in flight than at other times and are probably used as
signals, as to dangers or the presence of food. The female has a
faint quacking note.
On their breeding grounds blue-winged teal are associated with
various other species, notably shovellers, pintails, gadwalls, and
mallards. On their migrations they usually fly in flocks by
themselves, but often resort to the same feeding grounds as other
surface-feeding ducks. Doctor Yorke (1899) says:
They mix a great deal with the coots, eagerly devouring the
seeds of the teal moss, which the former by diving tear up by the
roots, and the long sprays covered with seeds float upon the
surface of the water.
In Florida and Louisiana they seem to associate with the larger
shore birds, feeding with them in the shallow lagoons. They are
always gentle and harmless towards other species. Their only enemies
are the predatory birds and animals, among which the human hunter
is the most destructive.
Fall.--As soon as the young are able
to fly, or even before that, they begin gathering into flocks
preparing for the fall migration, which begins with the first
early frosts in August and is mainly accomplished during
September, for these delicate birds are very sensitive to the
approach of autumn and are the earliest ducks to migrate. Doctor
Yorke (1899) has described this movement very well; he writes:
About the early part of August the local ducks of each State
begin to work northward; during September they flock together and
form the first flight, passing over the same grounds. The
collecting or flocking together of the local birds, which form the
first fall issue, presents an interesting sight. For nearly two
days the ducks will be noticed as getting very uneasy, whipping
about without the regularity which had hitherto been customary
upon their feeding, playing, and roosting grounds. On the day of
their departure, after feeding, they will flock to some large
common playground; where, instead of quietly resting, as usual,
they assume a stage of activity. About 3 in the afternoon, instead
of drifting back to their feeding grounds as usual in little
flocks, singles, and pairs, they form flocks and sweep up and
around the open water and alight again. The flocks soon increase
in size and after two or three circles around the open water, each
time rising higher and higher, they proceed south in well-defined
and distinct flocks, each under a leader, and soon vanish in the
distance, never returning that fall. Three or four days of no
shooting occurs, except upon those which were too weak or
incapacitated for a long flight, before the second issue arrives,
which stays a few days. A cold snap brings down the third, the
weather determining the length of their stay. The second and third
depart at night or late in the evening, but evince no disposition
to assemble as the first. They are the second of our warm-weather
birds to leave, closely following the wood ducks.
Game--The little blue-winged teal is
a favorite of the sportsmen; it comes at the beginning of the
season, when he is eager to try his skill at one of the swiftest
of ducks; it decoys readily, especially to live decoys; it flies
in large, compact flocks, which offer tempting shots as they twist
and turn or swing and wheel in unison; it is unsuspicious of its
hidden foe, is easily killed with small shot and makes a fine
table bird. We used to look for it about the full of the moon in
September and could always count on finding plenty of birds in the
shallow ponds, marshes, and grassy creeks, but, unfortunately, it
has been steadily decreasing since the early eighties and is now
quite scarce in Massachusetts. In the good old days, when these
birds were abundant, they were an easy mark for the youthful
gunner, as they huddled together in a compact flock on the water,
and a large number could be killed at a single discharge of the
old muzzle-loader.
Dr. L. C. Sanford (1903) writes of shooting blue-winged teal as
follows:
In late August we find them fully fledged, frequenting the
marshes of the West where the wild rice grows. They are
relentlessly hunted from time of first arrival. During the hours
that are sacred to the duck marsh, the time after dawn and toward
dusk, they are found. At first many are killed by pushing through
the grass as they jump up in front of the skiff or on their line
of flight between the ponds. At the approach of evening the first
line appears over the tops of the rush grass, flying low and with
a speed possessed only by a teal. Another minute and they have
passed; the rush of their wings told how closely they came; but no
one but an old hand could have stopped one. The next flock follow,
the gunner rises in time, and they sheer off, crowding together in
an attempt to turn; but a well-placed shot drops several birds. So
they come on until dark, when the soft whistling overhead tells of
ducks still looking for a spot to feed and spend the night in
peace.
Mr. Dwight W. Huntington (1903) pays the following tribute to
their speed:
After some days' shooting at the sharp-tailed grouse, I went
one day to a famous duck pass in North Dakota, when the teal were
flying from the Devils Lake to a smaller one to breakfast. As soon
as I had made my blind, they began to come singly and in pairs,
sometimes three or four together or a small flock, and although
they came in quick succession and the shooting was fast enough to
heat the gun, I believe it was an hour or more before I killed a
bird. I was almost in despair, when I fired at a passing flock,
holding the gun a yard or more before the leading birds, and at
the report a single teal, some distance behind the others, fell
dead upon the beach. I at once began shooting long distances ahead
of the passing ducks, and before long I had a large bag of birds.
A few day afterwards an officer from the garrison near by, a
good shot in the upland fields and woods, went with me to my duck
pass to shoot at teal. We made our blinds some two gun shots apart
and began to shoot. The birds came rapidly as before, and my
friend gave them two barrels as they passed, but was entirely out
of ammunition before he killed a bird. His orderly came to my
blind for shells, and with them I sent the message to shoot three
times as far ahead as he had been doing, and he was soon killing
birds.
Winter.--They are still abundant in
some parts of the South, where they make their winter home in the
great rice fields and extensive marshes, feeding on the ripened
grains that fall upon the water, feasting and growing fat. Here
they are safe enough as long as they paddle about and remain
hidden in the innermost recesses of the rice fields and
inaccessible swampy pools; but the sportsmen soon learn their
haunts and habits, build their blinds near their favorite feeding
grounds or fly ways and shoot them as they fly about in search of
food and shelter. Constant persecution has thus materially reduced
their numbers, but since such extensive sanctuaries have been
established in Louisiana, it is to be hoped that they will have a
safe haven of rest, in the fall at least; this may also result in
larger numbers sojourning there for the winter, rather than
passing on farther south, as the majority of this species now
does.
Blue-winged Teal*
Anas discors
*Original Source: Bent,
Arthur Cleveland. 1923. Smithsonian Institution United
States National Museum Bulletin 126 (Part 1): 111-121. United
States Government Printing Office
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